![\"ValerijaBENKO\"](\"https:\/\/veterinarska-stanica-journal.hr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/ValerijaBENKO-2025.jpg\")
<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
V. Benko<\/strong>, H. Capak<\/strong>*, P. Brati\u0107<\/strong> and S. Faraguna<\/strong><\/p>\n <\/a><\/p>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Interpreting bovine hematology is essential for diagnosing, monitoring, and prognosing various diseases. One of the most commonly used diagnostic tool is the complete blood count (CBC), which helps identify a wide range of organ and systemic diseases. The purpose of this review article is to provide veterinarians, especially field veterinarians, with as much useful information as possible, about bovine hematological tests. Bovine complete blood count can be of great assistance in diagnosing, furthertesting and predicting the prognosis of bovine diseases. However, it should be noted that the diagnosis of bovine diseases based solely on a complete blood count is only occasionally possible. In most cases, a complete blood count in bovine serves as an important adjunctive tool in diagnosing diseases. In this paper, we will focus on the specificities of bovine erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes.<\/p>\n Key words:<\/strong> hemogram; blood cells; normal values; variation; bovine<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Interpreting bovine hematology is crucial for diagnosing, monitoring, and prognosing diseases (Wood and Quiroz-Rocha, 2010). Many bovine veterinarians routinely submit blood samples for CBC analysis to local or remote diagnostic laboratories. These laboratories typically employ automated analyzers that generate comprehensive CBC data, including information on red blood cells (RBC) and platelet (PLT) count and size, as well as total and differential white blood cell (WBC) count (Warren et al<\/em>., 2013). <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n During blood sampling, the veterinarian must collect, store, and transport blood samples according to all professional standards to avoid potential changes in the results that may occur after sampling, thus affecting the blood analysis. Improper sampling can lead to in vivo<\/em> cellular changes that may sometimes be misinterpreted as pathological changes. In bovine, blood is usually collected from the tail (coccygeal vein) or the neck (jugular vein). The sampling area is shaved, cleaned, and disinfected with an antiseptic solution.<\/p>\n For a complete blood count, the blood sample is collected with an EDTA (ethylene- diamine-tetraacetic acid) anticoagulant tube up to the marked line. The blood sample is gently and carefully mixed a few times to prevent clotting and cell damage. To ensure interpretability, the blood samples must be delivered to the laboratory as soon as possible. In case immediate delivery is not possible, the blood samples should be stored in a refrigerator at +4\u00b0C to minimize the possibility of result alterations (Kessell, 2015.).<\/p>\n If automated cell counters are used to obtain a CBC count, results should be interpreted with care to avoid false-positive or false-negative results. In case of doubt, manual microscopic evaluation of the blood sample is recommended. Changes in the bovine CBC count, especially in the leukogram, might not be as pronounced as in other species even during severe illness (Roland and al., 2014).<\/p>\n For example, hematological values for bovine at the Laboratory of hematology of the Clinic for Internal Medicine at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Zagreb are analyzed using a hematological analyzer (Horiba ABX, micros, France) with settings for bovine. The parameters measured include red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, MCV (mean corpuscular volume), MCH (mean corpuscular hemoglobin), MCHC (mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration), RDW (red cell distribution width), platelet count, MPV (mean platelet volume) and total leukocyte count (Table 1).<\/p>\n The differential blood count (relative numbers of segmented neutrophils, band neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils) is determined from blood smears stained with May \u2013 Gr\u00fcnwald Giemsa stainings and examined under the microscope with immersion magnification (Olympus BX421, Japan).<\/p>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n During erythropoiesis, red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, stimulatated by erythropoietin, primarily produced in the kidneys (Brun-Hansen et al<\/em>., 2006). Erythrocytes are typically biconcave in shape, lacking a nucleus or organelles (Figure 1a), and thus incapable of protein synthesis. Polychromasia in erythrocytes represents a variation in the degree of staining and is indicative of reticulocytes that stain more blue due to the remaining DNA. In ruminants, polychromasia signifies a sign of regenerative anemia.<\/p>\n Howell-Jolly bodies are small, dark, round structures composed of nuclear material within erythrocytes. In cattle, Howell-Jolly bodies are similar to Anaplasma marginale and can pose challenges in differentiation. Agglutination of erythrocytes in blood smears is the most commonly observed as clustered forms of erythrocytes. The presence of agglutinates indicates immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA). A frequent cause of agglutination and IMHA are hemoparasites (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\n Basophilic stippling of erythrocytes is seen as numerous small basophilic inclusions within erythrocytes, originating from the staining of ribosome aggregates. It is most often observed in regenerative anemias in ruminants.<\/p>\n Heinz bodies form within erythrocytes as a result of oxidative damage, leading to the deposition of hemoglobin. They appear as round, pink structures protruding from the edge of erythrocytes in Wright\u2019s staining or as round dark structures connected to the erythrocyte membrane in methylene blue staining. They can occur when animals are fed maple leaves, onions, garlic, phenothiazines or in cases of copper poisoning. Erythrocytes containing Heinz bodies are more susceptible to intravascular and extravascular hemolysis.<\/p>\n Rouleaux formation is visible as linear stacking of erythrocytes on a blood smear. It rarely occurs in healthy ruminants but can be seen with elevated levels of plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and immunoglobulins (Sharkley and Overman, 2015).<\/p>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Anemia is defined as a reduced ability to transport oxygen in the blood. There are three pathophysiological mechanisms of anemia: blood loss, increased erythrocyte destruction (hemolysis), and insufficient erythrocyte production. In the first two mechanisms, the bone marrow functions and responds normally with increased erythropoiesis (regenerative anemia). In ruminants, regenerative anemias are characterized by the presence of immature forms of erythrocytes in the peripheral blood. Hematocrit values less than 24%, total erythrocyte count less than 5.0 x 106<\/sup> \/\u00b5L, or hemoglobin concentration less than 8 g\/dL in ruminants is defined as anemia. The presence of polychromasia or reticulocytes in ruminants indicates a regenerative anemia. Other signs include Howell-Jolly bodies, basophilic stippling of erythrocytes, erythrocytes with nuclei, elevated mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). It is important to note that bone marrow response in ruminants can take from 2 to even up to 30 days (Harvey, 2001.).<\/p>\n Regenerative anemia is caused by bleeding or hemolysis. In the case of reduced hematocrit and normal or elevated total protein values, the animal is most likely experiencing a hemolytic process. On the other hand, if hematocrit is reduced while total protein values in the blood are proportionally decreased, we can talk about hemorrhagic changes (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\n The most common causes of bleeding in cattle include trauma, abomasal ulcers, hemorrhagic enteritis, vena cava syndrome, endo- and ectoparasites, hemostatic disturbances, and vascular erosions or ruptures (Jones and Allison, 2007; Brockus, 2011).<\/p>\n Hemolysis is caused by erythrocytic parasites such as Anaplasma<\/em>, Babesia<\/em>, Mycoplasma<\/em>, and others, bacteria like Clostridium haemolyticum<\/em> and Leptospira<\/em> sp., toxins like copper, onions, red maple leaves, cruciferous plants, or phosphorus deficiency.<\/p>\n Non-regenerative anemias in cattle are most commonly caused by so-called anemias of inflammatory or chronic diseases (such as lymphoma, gastrointestinal disorders, chronic abscesses, endocrine diseases, hepatopathies, BVDV infections), anemias of chronic kidney failure, nutritional deficiencies (such as iron, copper, cobalt) and bone marrow diseases (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Polycythemia (erythrocytosis) is an elevated number of erythrocytes, hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration (Brockus, 2011). <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Leukocytes (white blood cells) play an important role in the immune defence of the body and comprise various subpopulations, including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes (Roland et al<\/em>., 2014). The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in adult cattle is approximately 1:2, which differs from the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in other domestic animals. Cattle have a small reserve of granulocytes in the bone marrow, resulting in a more neutropenic than neutrophilic response in the early stages of inflammatory processes (Wood and Quiroz- Rocha, 2010).<\/p>\n The complete leukocyte profile involves the total leukocyte count, relative differential blood count, and absolute differential blood count. The total leukocyte count in cattle decreases with age of the animal. The predominant leukocyte subpopulation in cattle are lymphocytes, whose ratio varies throughout their lifespan. Newborn calves have more granulocytes than lymphocytes in their bloodstream. During the first month of the calf\u2019s life, there is a decreasing total leukocyte, neutrophil and lymphocyte count, followed by their increase. Within three months, the lymphocyte percentage rises to 80% of all circulating leukocytes (Roland et al<\/em>., 2014).<\/p>\n Neutrophils in the blood are relatively large cells, with a diameter of 10-15 \u00b5m (Calamai and Spitznagel, 1982). They have a large and multilobed nucleus, and three types of granules are present in the cytoplasm (Figure 1b). Neutrophils in cattle possess larger granules compared to neutrophil granules in other domestic animal species (Bertram, 1985). In cattle, we categorise the granules into azurophilic or primary granules formed during the promyelocyte stage, and specific or secondary and large or tertiary granules formed during later myelocyte and metamyelocyte stages (Baggiolini et al<\/em>., 1985; Paape et al<\/em>., 2003). Toxic changes in neutrophils occur within the bone marrow and include the presence of D\u00f6hle bodies in neutrophil cytoplasm, toxic granules, diffuse cytoplasmic basophilia, bizarre giant forms, cytoplasmic vacuolisation, and foamy cytoplasm (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\n Pelger-Hu\u00ebt anomaly in cattle appears as an acquired form in animals with inflammatory processes such as mastitis, metritis, and traumatic reticuloperitonitis. Chediak-Higashi syndrome is an inherited disorder that can occur in Hereford, Brangus, and Japanese Black cattle, characterised by the presence of large and abnormal granules in neutrophils and eosinophils, and causing platelet abnormalities (Meyers, 2000).<\/p>\n Neutrophilia can occur due to mild to moderate inflammation or during recovery from severe inflammation. There are three leukocyte response patterns causing neutrophilia: the inflammatory leukogram, stress leukogram and physiological leukocytosis. Holstein cattle are known to have a lack of adhesion molecules in their leukocytes which prevents neutrophils from adhering to activated endothelium. Affected animals typically have very high leukocyte count and persistent or repeted infections.<\/p>\n An elevated neutrophil count most commonly arises from stress and chronic inflammation caused by infections such as mammary, urogenital, respiratory, and gastrointestinal, as well as infections affecting the liver, heart, or central nervous system.<\/p>\n Additionally, neutrophilia develops during acute purulent processes like endometritis, retained placenta, acute bacterial mastitis, and peritonitis triggered by a foreign body. Inflammatory neutrophilia can also be seen in viral, protozoal, parasitic, and fungal infections (Tornquist and Rigas, 2010). However, neutrophilia can also be present in non-infectious inflammation such as traumatic injuries, necrosis, thrombosis, burns, etc. (Weiser, 2006.). Stress can lead to mature neutrophilia with lymphopenia and eosinopenia, but a left shift and toxic changes are not seen. The total WBC count may be within normal reference limits because the degree of increase in absolute neutrophil numbers is less than in other species with stress conditions (Kessell, 2015).<\/p>\n Lymphocytes are unique cells, originating from the bone marrow cell but maturing and proliferating in other lymphoid tissue. Lymphocytes mostly consist of B cells and T cells. In cattle, we find small, medium, and large lymphocytes (Figure 1c), and it\u2019s not uncommon to encounter lymphocytes containing azurophilic cytoplasmic granules.<\/p>\n Pathological lymphocytosis in cattle is not a common occurrence, but it can be associated with chronic infections caused by viruses, chronic suppurative conditions, or autoimmune diseases (Joned and Allison, 2007). Enzootic bovine leukosis, caused by RNA virus from the Deltaretrovirus<\/em> genus, Retroviridae<\/em> family, results in persistent leukocytosis with an increased number of B lymphocytes and abnormal lymphocyte morphology, with more than 30% of such cells in affected cattle (Esteban et al<\/em>., 1985).<\/p>\n The main role of eosinophils is manifested in the immune response to parasites, allergens, and other inflammatory stimuli (Figure 1f). Eosinophilia in cattle most commonly occurs as a result of parasite migration (Tornquist and Rigas, 2010) and type I hypersensitivity reactions (Tizard, 2013). Basophils are very rarely found in the blood of large animals. They are formed in the bone marrow through mitosis of basophilic promonocytes and go through all stages of development like neutrophils (Figure 1d). Their half-life in circulation is 6 hours, after which they enter tissues where they can survive for 10 to 12 days. They play an important role in inflammatory processes and allergies by releasing inflammatory mediators such as heparin and histamine in immediate hypersensitivity reactions (Morris, 2002).<\/p>\n Monocytes (Figure 1e) are formed in the bone marrow, and once released into circulation, they can circulate for one to three days before entering tissues where they become macrophages. In tissues, they can survive from several weeks to a couple of years, and they are capable of phagocytizing infectious organisms, particles, and cellular debris. An increased number of monocytes in the blood may indicate chronic inflammation, tissue necrosis, hemolysis, or a stress response, while a decreased number of monocytes may be associated with endotoxemia or viremia (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\n Platelets are non-nucleated cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes (Figure 1a), and their most important role is in regulating hemostasis (Russell, 2010). With an average platelet volume (MPV) of 4.0 \u2013 4.8 fL, bovine platelets fall into the category of small platelets when compared to those of other species (Boudreaux and Ebbe, 1998). About 30 \u2013 40% of platelets are found in the spleen and are released into circulation stimulated by the release of the hormone epinephrine. Brun-Hansen et al<\/em>. (2006) found a higher total platelet count in calves up to 19-21 weeks of age compared to the total platelet count in adult cattle. They observed a pronounced increase in platelet count during the second week of calf’s life.<\/p>\n In cases with established clinical signs such as petechiae and mucosal bleeding, platelet assessment is indicated. Platelet count should be done from blood samples within the first 4 to 6 hours after blood collection. Thrombocytopenia in cattle is considered when the total platelet count is less than 100,000 cells\/\u00b5L and is caused by mechanisms such as reduced platelet production, short platelet lifespan, and platelet sequestration. The most common causes of thrombocytopenia in ruminants include conditions and diseases like disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), fern poisoning, and septic mastitis or metritis (Morris, 2002).<\/p>\n <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n In this review article, physiological and pathological characteristics of bovine hemogram and leukogram were discussed as well as morphological characteristics of individual leukocytes. The results of a CBC are often very useful tool in the diagnosis, monitoring and prognosis of a different disease that can affect cattle. If automated cell counters are used to obtain a CBC, results should be interpreted with care to avoid false-positive or false-negative outcomes. A manual microscopic evaluation of a stained blood smear should be carried out. In cattle, changes in the CBC, especially in the leukogram, might not be as pronounced as in other species even during severe illness. Therefore, a diagnosis or prognosis should not be based only on hematological findings, but should also take findings from the clinical examination or other diagnostic procedures into consideration.<\/p>\n <\/a> 1.\tBAGGIOLINI, M., U. HORISBERGER, R. GENNARO and B. DEWALD (1985): Identification of three types of granules in neutrophils of ruminants. Ultrastructure of circulating and maturing cells. Lab. Investig. J. Technol. Methods Pathol. 52, 151-158. <\/a> ▲<\/a><\/p>\n Interpretacija hemograma goveda klju\u010dna je za dijagnosticiranje, pra\u0107enje i prognozu razli\u010ditih bolesti. Jedna od naj\u010de\u0161\u0107e kori\u0161tenih dijagnosti\u010dkih metoda je kompletna krvna slika (KKS) koja poma\u017ee u prepoznavanju \u0161irokog spektra organskih i sistemskih bolesti. Svrha je ovog preglednog \u010dlanka pru\u017eiti veterinarima, posebice terenskim veterinarima, \u0161to vi\u0161e korisnih informacija o hematolo\u0161kim promjenama u goveda. Kompletna krvna slika goveda mo\u017ee biti od velike pomo\u0107i u dijagnostici, daljnjim ispitivanjima i predvi\u0111anju prognoze bolesti goveda. Me\u0111utim, pritom treba naglasiti da je dijagnostika bolesti goveda isklju\u010divo na temelju kompletne krvne slike rijetko mogu\u0107a. U ve\u0107ini slu\u010dajeva, kompletna krvna slika slu\u017ei kao va\u017ean dopunski alat u dijagnostici. U ovom smo radu obratili posebnu pozornost na specifi\u010dnosti eritrocita, leukocita i trombocita u goveda.<\/p>\n Klju\u010dne rije\u010di:<\/strong> hemogram, krvne stanice, normalne vrijednosti, odstupanja, govedo<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" V. Benko, H. Capak*, P. Brati\u0107 and S. Faraguna Valerija BENKO, DVM, PhD, Expert Associate, Hrvoje CAPAK*, (Corresponding author, e-mail:<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":8,"featured_media":0,"menu_order":6,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[28],"tags":[2635,2252,2634,2636,2637],"issuem_issue":[2611],"ppma_author":[65],"class_list":["post-8609","article","type-article","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-review-articles","tag-blood-cells","tag-bovine","tag-hemogram","tag-normal-values","tag-variation","issuem_issue-veterinarska-stanica-56-6"],"yoast_head":"\n
\nValerija BENKO<\/strong>, DVM, PhD, Expert Associate, Hrvoje CAPAK<\/strong>*, (Corresponding author, e-mail: hcapak@vef.unizg.hr), DVM, PhD, Associate Professor, Petra BRATI\u0106<\/strong>, DVM, Expert Associate, Sini\u0161a FARAGUNA<\/strong>, DVM, Assistant, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Croatia<\/div>\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/veterinarska-stanica-journal.hr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/pdf.png\")
<\/a>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.46419\/vs.56.6.14<\/a><\/div>\n<\/p>\n\nAbstract<\/a>Introduction<\/a>Sampling of bovine blood and complete blood count<\/a>Bovine red blood cells<\/a>Anemias in cattle<\/a>Polycythemia (erythrocytosis)<\/a>Cattle leukogram<\/a>Conclusions<\/a>References<\/a>Sa\u017eetak<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n
Abstract<\/h2>\n
\nIntroduction<\/h2>\n
\n
\nA complete blood count (CBC) is a standard diagnostic tool used to identify a wide range of organ and systemic diseases. While a complete blood count alone may not always lead to a definitive diagnosis, it can offer valuable insights aiding in proper diagnosis, surveillance, and prognosis of diseases in individual animals (Roland et al<\/em>., 2014). This review aims to furnish bovine veterinarians and laboratory personnel with an encompassing understanding of sample collection, reference values, anemia classification, characteristics of bovine hemograms, and diseases linked with hematological abnormalities in bovines.<\/p>\n
\nThe values of various blood parameters in bovines fluctuate depending on age (Klinkon, 2000). Calves exhibit altered values shortly after birth due to colostrum intake, the short lifespan of RBCs, and a decline in fetal hemoglobin concentration (Kramer, 2006).
\nFeeding and rearing practices significantly influence hematological parameters in growing calves (Reece and Hotchkiss, 1987).
\nDuring this phase, RBC count, hemoglobin concentration, and hematocrit values increase. Calves predominantly fed with milk may experience decreased values of these parameters, leading to anemia due to iron deficiency (Reece, 1980). The WBC count in calves is typically higher compared to adult animals. Different leukocyte types have varying lifespans, resulting in rapid changes in their numbers, with blood serving as a mere transport medium.<\/p>\nSampling of bovine blood and complete blood count<\/h2>\n
\n![\"Table01-Hemogram\"](\"https:\/\/veterinarska-stanica-journal.hr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Table01-Hemogram.png\")
*The authors of the Merck Veterinary Manual stated that they used data from multiple sources, including Latimer, K. S., , Duncan & Prasse\u2019s Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Clinical Pathology, 5th<\/sup> ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2011; Weiss D. J., Wardrop, K. J., Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology, 6th<\/sup> Ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\nBovine red blood cells<\/h2>\n
\n
\nErythropoiesis takes about 5 days, and bovine erythrocytes have a relatively long lifespan, lasting between 130 and 160 days (Wood and Quiroz-Rocha, 2010). The main function of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen bound to hemoglobin to tissues. All the energy expended by erythrocytes is focused on optimizing the delivery of oxygen to the tissue (Olver et al<\/em>., 2010).<\/p>\n![\"Figure01-Hemogram\"](\"https:\/\/veterinarska-stanica-journal.hr\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Figure01-Hemogram.jpg\")
a<\/strong>) erythrocytes and thrombocytes, x 1000; b<\/strong>) neutrophil with multilobed nucleus, x 600; c<\/strong>) lymphocyte with deeper smooth blue cytoplasm, cytoplasmic granules, round nucleus and clumped chromatin (heterochromatin), x 600; d<\/strong>) basophil, x 1000; e<\/strong>) monocyte with kidney shape nuclei and uniformly grainy blue-gray cytoplasm, x 1000, f<\/strong>) eosinophil with eosinophilic granules, x 1000.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\nRed blood cell morphology and structure<\/h3>\n
\nThey consist of 61% water, 32% protein (mainly hemoglobin), 7% carbohydrates, and 0.4% lipids (Pennel, 1974). The diameter of erythrocytes in cattle is around 5 \u2013 6 \u00b5m, which is smaller compared to the diameter of erythrocytes in other species of domestic animals (Wood and Quiroz-Rocha, 2010).
\nMorphological abnormalities of erythrocytes can be detected during microscopic examination of blood smears (Jones and Allison, 2007). Poikilocytosis is a general term for variation in the shape of erythrocytes.
\nIn ruminants, poikilocytosis is a common occurrence and is considered a physiological finding. Anisocytosis represents variation in the size of erythrocytes (Barger, 2010).
\nMild to moderate anisocytosis is sometimes present in healthy ruminants, while more pronounced anisocytosis can appear in cases of regenerative anemia.<\/p>\n
\nErythrocytes with nuclei are not normally seen in cattle blood smears. A small number of such cells may be observed in regenerative anemias, but they must be accompanied by a high degree of polychromasia. Damage to the bone marrow, intoxication, hypoxia, and neoplasia can also lead to an increase in the number of erythrocytes with nuclei.
\nIn ruminants, they most commonly appear in cases of lead poisoning (Sharkley and Overman, 2015).<\/p>\nAnemias in cattle<\/h2>\n
\n
\nInadequate erythrocyte production is caused by abnormalities in the bone marrow, resulting in a type of anemia known as non-regenerative anemia (Morris, 2002).<\/p>\nCauses of regenerative anemias in cattle<\/h3>\n
Causes of non-regenerative anemias in cattle<\/h3>\n
Polycythemia (erythrocytosis)<\/h2>\n
\n
\nIt can be relative or absolute. Relative is more common, where there is no actual increase in the total mass of erythrocytes; rather, hemoconcentration or spleen contractions cause an apparent rise (Jones and Allison, 2007). Hemoconcentration is often caused by dehydration and loss of plasma volume. In endotoxic shock, hemoconcentration can also occur due to increased vascular permeability.
\nAbsolute erythrocytosis occurs when there is a real increase in the mass of erythrocytes as a result of enhanced erythropoiesis and can be primary or secondary (Roland et al<\/em>., 2014). Primary absolute erythrocytosis is caused by chronic myeloproliferative disease where erythropoiesis occurs independently of erythropoietin (EPO). Secondary absolute erythrocytosis occurs in response to elevated levels of EPO, which can be physiologically appropriate due to hypoxia or physiologically inappropriate due to tumor-produced EPO (Sharkley and Overman, 2015).<\/p>\nCattle leukogram<\/h2>\n
\nNeutrophils<\/h3>\n
\nCompared to humans, bovine neutrophils play a stronger bactericidal role, featuring higher lactoferrin levels, B12-binding protein, acid and alkaline phosphatases, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase.
\nHowever, they have a lower concentration of lysozyme, myeloperoxidase, catalase, beta-glucuronidase, and beta-galactosidase (Gennaro et al<\/em>., 1978).<\/p>\n
\nThe hereditary form of this anomaly has not been documented in cattle. Affected cells display immature nucleus forms, but their chromatin is mature and differentiates them from true non-segmented granulocyte forms (Osburn and Glenn, 1968).<\/p>\nLymphocytes<\/h3>\n
\nAdditionally, lymphocytes are the only subpopulation of leukocytes that recirculate between blood and tissues (Kramer, 2000).<\/p>\nEosinophils<\/h3>\n
\nEosinophils are stored in the bone marrow, and their half-life in circulation ranges from 30 minutes to 10 hours. Eosinophils can be found in the stomach, subcutaneous tissue, uterus, respiratory system, and many other organs, where their half-life is 12 days (Morris, 2002).<\/p>\n
\nHowever, causes such as neoplasia, infections, and drug reactions can also lead to eosinophilia (Webb and Latimer, 2011).<\/p>\nBasophils<\/h3>\n
Monocytes<\/h3>\n
Thrombocytes (platelets)<\/h3>\n
\nApart from the spleen, platelets are stored in the liver and the bone marrow (Boudreaux et al<\/em>., 2011).<\/p>\n
\nPlatelet aggregates are a common occurrence in cattle blood and can arise due to prolonged exposure to EDTA anticoagulants or the use of lithium heparin as anticoagulant. The appearance of platelet aggregates in some hematological counters can falsely lead to a decrease in the total platelet count (Jones and Allison, 2007).<\/p>\nConclusions<\/h2>\n
\n
\nReferences<\/strong> [… show]<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n ▲<\/a><\/p>\n
\n2.\tBARGER, A. M. (2010): Erythrocyte morphology. In: Weiss, D. J. and K. J. Wardrop: Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology, 6th edition. Wiley Blackwell, Ames (145-146).
\n3.\tBERTRAM, T. A. (1985): Neutrophilic leukocyte structure and function in domestic animals. Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med. 30, 91-129.
\n4.\tBOUDREAUX, M. K. and S. EBBE (1998): Comparision of platelet number, mean platelet volume and platelet mass in five mammalian species. Comp. Haematol. Intl. 8, 16-20.
\n5.\tBOUDREAUX, M. K., E. A. SPANGLER and E. G. WELLES (2011): Hemostasis. In: Latimer, K. S.: Duncan and Prasse\u2019s veterinary laboratory medicine: clinical pathology. 5th edition. Wiley, Chichester (107-144).
\n6.\tBROCKUS, C. W. (2011): Erythrocytes. In: Latimer, K. S.: Duncan and Prasse\u2019s veterinary laboratory medicine: clinical pathology, 5th edition. Wiley, Chichester (3-44).
\n7.\tBRUN\u2013HANSEN, H. C., A. H. KAMPEN and A. LUND (2006): Hematologic values in calves during the first 6 months of life. Vet. Clin. Pathol. 35, 182-187.
\n8.\tCALAMAI, E. G. and J. K. SPITZNAGEL (1982): Characterization of rat polymorphonuclear leukocyte subcellular granules. Lab. Investig. J. Technol. Methods Pathol. 46, 597-604.
\n9.\tESTEBAN, E. N., R. M. THORN and J. F. FERRER (1985): Characterization of the blood lymphocyte population in cattle infected with the bovine leukemia virus. Cancer Res. 45, 3225-3230.
\n10.\tGENNARO, R., C. SCHNEIDER, G. de NICOLA, F. CIAN and D. ROMEO (1978): Biochemical properties of bovine granulocytes. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 157, 342-347.
\n11.\tHARVEY, J. W. (2001): Atlas of Veterinary Hematology, Saunders, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
\n12.\tJONES, M. L. and R. W. ALLISON (2007): Evaluation of the ruminant complete blood cell count. Vet. Clin. Food Anim. 23, 377-402.
\n13.\tKESSELL, A. (2015): Bovine Haematology and Biochemistry. In: Cockcroft, P.: Bovine Medicine, 3rd edition, Wiley Blackwell, USA (146-160).
\n14.\tKLINKON, M., T. ZADNIK, M. MESARI\u010c, M. NEMEC (2000): Haematological profile of neonatal White and Black calves with regard to age and sex. Comp. Haematol. Int. 10, 4.
\n15.\tKRAMER, J. W. (2000): Normal hematology of cattle, sheep, and goats. In: Feldman, B. F., J. G. Zinkl and N. C. Jain: Schalm\u2019s veterinary hematology, 5th edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia (1075-1084). 16. KRAMER, J. W. (2006): General physiologic and environmental influences. In: Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology. Blackwell Publishing Ames, USA, (1075-1084).
\n17.\tMEYERS, K. M. (2000): Chediak-Higashi syndrome. In: Feldman, B. F., J. G. Zinkl and N. C. Jain: Schalm\u2019s Vet-erinary Hematology, 5th edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia (971-975).
\n18.\tMORRIS, D. D. (2002): Alterations in the leukogram. In: Smith, B. P.: Large animal internal medicine, 4th edition. Mosby, Philadelphia (405-410).
\n19.\tOLVER, C. S., G. A. ANDREWS, J. E. SMITH and J. J. KANEKO (2010): Erythrocyte Structure and Function. In: Weiss, D. J. and K. J. Wardrop: Schalm\u2019s veterinary hematology, 6th edition. Elsevier, St.Louis Wiley-Blackwell, Ames (123-256).
\n20.\tOSBURN, B. I. and B. L. GLENN (1968): Acquired Pelger-Huet anomaly in cattle. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 152, 11-16.
\n21.\tPAAPE, M. J., D. D. BANNERMAN, X. ZHAO and J-W. LEE (2003): The bovine neutrophil: structure and function in blood and milk. Vet. Res. 34, 597-627.
\n22.\tPENNEL, R. B. (1974): Composition of normal human red cells. In: Surgenor, D. M.: The Red Blood Cell, 1st edition. Academic Press, New York (93-146).
\n23.\tREECE, W. O. (1980): Acid-base balance and selected hematologic, electrolyte, and blood chemical variables in calves: mild-fed vs conventionally fed. Am. J. Vet. Res., 41, 109-113.
\n24.\tREECE, W. O. and D. K. HOTCHKISS (1987): Blood studies and performance among calves reared by different methods. J. Dairy. Sci. 70, 1601-1611.
\n25.\tROLAND, L., M. DRILLICH and M. IWERSEN (2014): Hematology as a diagnostic tool in bovine medicine. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 26, 592-598.
\n26.\tRUSSELL, K. E. (2010): Platelet kinetics and laboratory evaluation of thrombocytopenia. In: Weiss, D. J. and K. J. Wardrop: Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology, 6th edition. Wiley, Ames (576-585).
\n27.\tSHARKLEY, L. C and J. A. OVERMAN (2015): Alterations in the erythron. In: Smith, B. P.: Large Animal Internal Medicine, Wiley, Ames (376-380).
\n28.\tTIZARD, I. R. (2013): Type IV hypersensitivity: delayed hypersensitivity. In: Veterinary immunology, 9th edition. Elsevier, St. Louis (365-375).
\n29.\tTORNQUIST, S. J. and J. RIGAS (2010): Interpretation of ruminant leukocyte response. In: Weiss, D. J. and K. J. Wardrop: Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology, 6th edition. Wiley, Ames (307-313).
\n30.\tWARREN, A. L., T. STOKOL, K. G. HECKER and D. V. NYDAM (2013): Storage-associated changes in the bovine hemogram with the ADVIA 120 hematology analyzer. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 22, 1235-1240.
\n31.\tWEBB, J. L. and K. S. LATIMER (2011): Leukocytes. In: Latimer, K. S.: Duncan and Prasse\u2019s veterinary laboratory medicine: clinical pathology, 5th edition. Wiley, Chichester (45-82).
\n32.\tWEISER, G. (2006): Neutrophil production, trafficking, and kinetics. In: Thrall, M. A.: Veterinary Hematology and Clinical Chemistry. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, USA (123-127).
\n33.\tWOOD, D. and G. F. QUIROZ-ROCHA (2010): Normal hematology of cattle. In: Weiss, D. J. and K. J. Wardrop: Schalm\u2019s Veterinary Hematology, 6th edition. Elsevier, St. Louis (829-835).
\n<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n
Hemogram goveda – razumijevanje normalnih vrijednosti i varijacija<\/h2>\n
\nDr. sc. Valerija BENKO<\/strong>, dr. med. vet., stru\u010dna suradnica, dr. sc. Hrvoje CAPAK<\/strong>, dr. med. vet., izvanredni profesor, Petra BRATI\u0106<\/strong>, dr. med. vet. stru\u010dna suradnica, Sini\u0161a FARAGUNA<\/strong>, dr. med. vet., asistent, Veterinarski fakultet Sveu\u010dili\u0161ta Zagrebu, Hrvatska<\/div>\n
\n